Concepts and Theories of Culinary Techniques
Week 1: Stocks and Thickening Agents
Stocks: The Fundamental Elements of Cooking
“Indeed, stock is everything in cooking, at least in French cooking. Without it nothing can be done. If one’s stock is good, what remains of the work is easy; if, on the other hand, it is bad or merely mediocre, it is quite hopeless to expect anything approaching a satisfactory result.”
Auguste Escoffier, Le Guide Culinaire
Stock = ‘fond’
*Stocks are the foundation or base of all classical and much modern cuisine.
*Stocks can be defined as clear, unthickened liquids flavored by soluble substances from meat, vegetables and aromatics.
Types of Stocks
* White Stock
Chicken
Fish
Veal
Brown Stock
Beef
Veal
Vegetable Stock
Special Varieties of Stock
Fumet: “aroma”, usually includes white wine, reduced to make a flavor dominany liqiuid then used for a sauce or court bouillon
Court Bouillon: a cooking liquid for poaching fish
Stock Ingredients
All of the stocks we will learn to make contain some common ingredients
While stocks are a good way to use things that might otherwise be thrown away, this does not mean that garbage can go into stock. If you wouldn’t eat it, don’t’ put it into your stock.
Stock Ingredients
I. Bones
Cut into pieces to expose surface area and aid in extracting flavor
Bones are used because of the connective tissue and the meat that is still attached
Slow cooking
Collagen Gelatin
Moist environment
II. Mirepoix
•1 pound of mirepoix to every 5 pounds of bones
•Onion (2 parts)
•Carrot (1 part) often excluded for white stock
•Celery (1 part)
•Leek (expensive, but sometimes included for flavor, particularly in fish stocks)
- Bay leaf
- Thyme
- Peppercorn
- Parsley Stems
- Improved extraction
- Acid products
- Tomato
- Wine
- Scraps of meat without fat
Rinse chicken or fish bones.
Place the bones in a stockpot, cover with cold water
Bring the stockpot to a simmer
Add mirepoix and bouquet garni at appropriate times.
Maintain a simmer for the appropriate amount of time
Chicken: 4-6 hours
Fish: 20-30 minutes
While simmering, depouiller (skim the scum) from time to time
Add water if necessary to keep the bones and mirepoix completely submerged.
When the stock has simmered for the required amount of time, strain through a china cap lined with cheese cloth.
Cool the stock as quickly as possible: in a sink with ice and water completely surrounding the pot and up to the level of the stock.
Place in an appropriate container, label, date, and store under refrigeration
Adapting the Procedure for Brown Stock
Do not rinse bones, we want the bones dry so that they will brown properly
Oil the bones lightly and roast them in a hot oven (375-400° F) until brown; stirring from time to time so that they brown evenly.
When the bones are brown, add tomato paste and stir to coat the bones lightly (pincer), return the pan to the oven and let it just begin to take some color. Be careful not to burn the tomato paste.
Add the bones to the stock pot, cover with water, bring to a simmer.
Pour off any excess fat, then deglaze the roasting pan with water (or wine) and add to the stock pot.
In the same pan used for the bones, brown the onions and carrots for the mirepoix. Since celery has such a high moisture content, it usually is not included here. Some chefs add the mirepoix to the stock pot immediately, others prefer to hold it out until 3-4 hours before the end of the cooking time.
Proceed as for white stock (except that the cooking time is generally much longer).
Signs of Quality in Stock
Flavor
Color
Clarity
Body
Thickening Agents
- Particulate: small particles of solid suspended in a liquid.
- Pureed soups are the most common example.
- Participate: starches gelatinize or absorb liquid and swell to many times their original size.
- Temperature: in general, sauces or soups are thicker when cold and thinner when hot
Kinds of starches used as thickening agents in the kitchen
Roux = equal parts sifted flour and butter (or any clarified fat) cooked to the proper color and aroma, depending on the type of roux.- White roux = slow and low heat to avoid color development - slight hazelnut aroma - Never use aluminum pan
- Blond roux = Moderate heat snd slow until a golden color and hazelnut aroma. Do not use aluminum pan
- Brown Roux = long cooking to avoid scorching starch until a peanut color and aroma.
Cornstarch
Arrowroot
Waxy maize
(Whitewash)
Beurre Manié = Equal parts room temperature butter and flour by weight.
The flour is kneaded into the butter
Same ingredients and proportions as roux, but raw.
Slurry = A slurry is a starch mixed with cold water until smooth and then added to a hot liquid to thicken. A slurry made from water and raw flour produces inferior flavor and texture.
Cornstarch - used as a slurry - will breakdown with extended heat or time
Arrowroot - used as a slurry - adds luster and produces longer holding properties
Waxy maize - (used commercially when the final product will be frozen)
Liaison - combining two or more products until no one can be identified
Example
Egg yolk(1 part) and cream (2-3 parts)
Finish sauces by "tempering in" the liaison just before service.
Do not boil the sauce once the liaison is in.
This is the classical way of finishing a velouté as a soup.
Soups
- Clear
- Thickened Soups
- Cream
- Puree Bisque
- Regional or specialty soups
- A Few Suggested Resources for Culinary Vocabulary
Lang, Jenifer Harvey, Larousse Gastronomique. New York: Crown,
1988.
Herbst, Sharon Tyler. The New Food
Lover’s Companion. 3rd ed. New York:
Barron’s, 2001.
http://eat.epicurious.com/dictionary/food/
Read chapters 1,5,6 and 10 in On Cooking
Study for quiz over today’s material
Week 2: Sauces and Soups
Sauces
nA sauce is a flavorful liquid, either thickened or reduced to the proper consistency.
nSauces add moistness, flavor, richness, visual appeal, and interest to the dishes they accompany.
Sauce Families
nLiquid + Thickening Agent = Leading Sauce
(Mother Sauce)
nLeading Sauce + Flavoring = Small Sauce
(Mother Sauce)
Mother Sauces
Béchamel
Owes its name to the Marquis de Béchameil (1630-1703) who was major domo to Louis XIV.
Béchamel + cream = Cream Sauce
Béchamel + cheese = Mornay
Béchamel + crayfish = Nantua
Béchamel + onion = Soubise
Velouté + cream = Suprême
Velouté + cream & glace de viande = Albufera or Ivoire
Velouté + tomato puree = Aurore
Velouté + cream, lemon juice & parsley = Poulette
Espagnole = basic brown sauce
Demi Glace = ½ Espagnole + ½ Brown Stock , reduced by half
Demi-glace + red wine & shallots Bordelaise
Demi-glace + Madeira Madeira
Demi-glace + black truffles Perigueux
Demi-glace + mushrooms Forestière
Tomato Sauce
Classically prepared with a roux, but most modern versions are made without starch.
Understanding emulsions
•Emulsions you already know about
•Mayonnaise
•Cream
•Milk
•Butter
•Cream rinse or conditioner for hair
•An emulsion is made by the combination of work—breaking one liquid into droplets—and the use of an “emulsifier” to stabilize the system.
How emulsifiers work
•Very fine particles can surround the dispersed phase of the emulsion and discourage them from coalescing into larger droplets.
•Starch
•Mustard
•Fatty acids have a chemical structure in which one end is fat soluble (or lipophilic) and one end is water soluble (hydrophilic)
•Lecithin in egg yolk
•soap
Hollandaise
•A classic sauce which uses the fundamental concept of emulsion as a thickening agent .
•An emulsion is a uniform mixture of two normally unmixable liquids.
Steps to make a hollandaise
•Make a reduction of white wine, vinegar, peppercorns and minced shallots. Cool the reduction.
•Place the cool reduction in a large, round-bottomed stainless steel bowl with the egg yolks.
•Making hollandaise (continued)
•Whip the yolk mixture with a large, flexible “piano” whisk over a hot-water bath until it is lighter in color, almost doubled in volume and thick enough to hold the trace of your whisk as you move it through the bowl.
•Off the heat, very slowly whisk in the clarified butter until the proper consistency is achieved
Making hollandaise (continued)
•Taste the sauce and correct the seasoning with lemon juice, salt, and a little cayenne pepper.
•Hold the sauce warm. It will break if it is either too hot or too cold.
Soups
•Clear Soups
•Broth and bouillon
•Vegetable soups
•Consommé
•Cream Soups
•Based on velouté
•Based on béchamel
•Pureed Soups
•Bisques
•Chowders
•Special Regional Soups
Service of soups
nPortion sizes
nAppetizer: 6-8 ounces
nMain course: 10-12 ounces
nTemperature
nHot soup in hot bowls
nCold soup in chilled bowls
nHolding for service
nThe best food quality is usually achieved by holding soup cold and re-heating in small batches a la minute.
Garnishing soups
nGarnishes in the soup
nPart of the preparation itself, precise knife work is important for consistency of cooking and appearance.
nGarnishes on top of the soup
nFresh herbs
nGrated cheese
nCroutons
nCrumbled bacon
nSour cream
nWhipped cream
n…
Consommé
nThe consummate soup of classical cuisine.
n“Consommé” literally means finished or completed
nThere are many classical variations and garnishes
Making consommé
nBegin with a strong, well-flavored, cold stock. I prefer to salt the stock with kosher salt before beginning the clarification process.
nPrepare the clearmeat or raft ingredients
nLean ground meat
nEgg whites
nMirepoix (to include an onion brulé if desired for color)
nAcid
nTomato product
nWhite wine
Making consommé (cont)
nCombine the clearmeat and the stock in a tall, heavy stockpot.
nSlowly bring the stockpot to a simmer, stirring occasionally to prevent the proteins from accumulating at the bottom and sticking.
nWhen the raft begins to form, cease stirring and reduce the heat slightly to maintain a gentle simmer.
Making consommé (cont)
nCut a “chimney” in the raft and baste the raft occasionally.
nAllow the soup to simmer and filter through the raft for approximately 1 ½ hours or until perfectly clear.
nLadle the clear consommé out of the stockpot without disturbing the raft. Strain it through a chinois lined with several layers of rinsed cheesecloth.
Making consommé (continued)
nDegrease the consommé.
nTaste and adjust the seasoning.
9-1-1
nWhat could go wrong?
nCan we clarify hot stock? How?
nCan we clarify without meat?
Discuss cream soup methods
nVelouté vs. béchamel
nClassical vs. modern
nWhat does it mean to “sweat” a vegetable?
Next Week
nVegetables
nBasic cooking methods
nHomework:
nCulinary terms beginning with “anglaise”
nRead chapters 11 and 12 in On Cooking
nStudy for quiz
Plants as Food
nPlants have been man’s primary source of food since the beginning of the species
nPlants are the ultimate source of nourishment for all animals since they are the beginning of the food chain.
nThe first plants were domesticated about 10,000 years ago
nMost vegetables and fruits that are readily available today have been consumed since before written history.
n(though not all in the same culture and place)
nCommon vegetables that are relatively new include broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, and celery
Fruit or Vegetable?
nVegetable originally meant anything of plant origin, as opposed to an animal or inanimate object. In the eighteenth century it came to mean plants eaten as food.
nFruit originally meant any plant used as food. In the modern botanical sense, a fruit is defined anatomically as the organ derived from the ovary of a plant and surrounding the seeds.
Effects of Cooking on Vegetables
nTexture
nFlavor
nColor
nNutritional Value
Controlling textural changes in vegetables
nThe texture of fruits and vegetables depends on two factors
nThe nature of the cell walls (or fiber)
nCellulose
nPectin
nThe abundance of water in the tissues
Controlling Texture: Plant Cell Biology for Chefs
nThe major component of cell walls is cellulose
nExtremely rigid
nChemically very stable
nInvulnerable to human digestive enzymes
nThree basic types of plant cells
nParenchyma: living tissue of fruit, leaf, stem, roots etc.
nCollenchyma: thicker cell walls provide support in young, growing tissue
nSclerenchyma: tissue strengtheners in mature parts of plants, contain lignin (the characteristic component of wood)
Controlling Texture: Cellulose and Pectin
nMade softer by:
nHeat—the longer a vegetable is cooked, the softer it becomes
nAlkalis—however, we don’t use alkalis (e.g. baking soda) when cooking vegetables because it makes them mushy and destroys vitamins
nMade firmer by:
nAcid—lemon juice, vinegar and tomato products added to vegetables extend the cooking time
nSugar—pectin is made firmer by sugar, fruit preserves, etc.
Controlling Flavor
nProper cooking enhances the natural flavor of vegetables
nCooking also inevitably loses some flavor. To minimize the loss:
nCook for as short a time as possible.
nCook in rapidly boiling salted water.
nMinimize leaching by not using too much water.
nSteam when appropriate
Controlling Flavor: Sugar & Starch Balance
nMost fruits store energy as starch which is then converted into sugar in the ripening process.
nWhen fruits and vegetables are fully ripe, then begin to age, this process can actually reverse. That is, a sweet vegetable can become more starchy as it ages
nSweet corn
nPeas and green beans
Controlling Color: Pigmentation of Vegetables
Controlling Color: Preventing “oxidation”
nRaw potatoes, apples, bananas, pears, eggplants, and avocados all turn brown when cut and exposed to the air
nPolyphenoloxidase is the enzyme responsible for this browning. The phenolic compounds and the enzyme are present in the vegetable tissue, but remain segregated until the tissue is disrupted.
nDiscouraging enzymatic browning:
nTemperature: chill or cook
nRemove the source of oxygen by submerging in cold water
nChloride ions: salt solutions
nSulfur compounds (as in dried fruits)
nAcids: citric acid(lemon juice), ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
Controlling Color: Ethylene and Ripening
nHave you ever noticed that bananas ripen much faster when they are stored with apples?
nFruits naturally produce ethylene as part of the ripening process.
nIn the modern terminal market system of distributing produce, bananas and tomatoes are picked green and then ‘gassed’ with ethylene at their destination to finish ripening.
Controlling Nutrient Loss
nVegetables are rich sources of vitamins A and C, but these vitamins can be lost relatively easily. Factors responsible for the loss are
nHigh temperature
nLong cooking
nLeaching
nAlkalis
nPlant enzymes
nOxygen
Standards of Quality in Cooked Vegetables
nColor
nTexture
nFlavor
nSeasoning
nKnife work and presentation
nSauces
nVegetable combinations
Summary: How to Cook Vegetables Properly
nDon’t overcook!
nCook as close to service time as possible; or blanch and shock, then reheat when needed. Never hold on a steam table for an extended time.
nCook green vegetables in a neutral ph. Don’t use baking soda.
nCook white and red vegetables in a slightly acidic solution
How to Cook Vegetables Properly (continued)
n Cut the vegetables neatly and uniformly for even cooking.
nStart with rapidly boiling salted water.
nCook green vegetables and strongly flavored vegetables uncovered.
Week 4: Potatoes and Starches
A Brief History of Potatoes
Relatives of tobacco and tomatoes
Indigenous to Central and South America, from the southern United States to the tip of Chile
Cultivated more than 4000 years ago in mountainous areas up to 15,000 feet (where corn cannot grow)
Staple food of the Incas
Spanish explorers brought the potato to Europe around 1570
A Brief History of Potatoes (continued)
England and Ireland had the potato by about 1610
Excluded from French cuisine until about 1780 in part because it was thought to cause leprosy.
A pharmacist named M. Parmentier (who had eaten the potato while he was a Prussian prisoner in the Seven Years’ War) campaigned for its use in France and convinced Louis XVI to serve the potato at court.
The potato came to the U.S. via Ireland in 1719
Irish Potato Famine 1845-1849: a blight which left one million dead and caused another one and a quarter million to emigrate.
Potatoes as Tubers
The potato is the swollen tip of an underground stem, and stores energy in the form of starch to support new stems that arise from the "eyes"
The high starch content, protein (more than 3%), and vitamin C make it an ideal food crop
Types of Potatoes
Characteristics of Starchy vs. Waxy Potatoes
Quality
Firm, smooth, not wrinkly or shriveled
Dry skins
Shallow eyes
No sprouts (sprouted potatoes are high in sugar and lower in starch)
No cracks, dark spots or rotten areas
No green color. Green on potatoes comes from being stored in the light and is a poisonous substance called "solanine"
Storing Potatoes
Cool, dry, dark place (55 – 60 ºF)
Not in the refrigerator: temperatures below 45° cause the potatoes to start converting potato starch to sugar. Once they have been refrigerated, they need to be stored for several weeks at 55 – 60 ºF to convert the sugar back to starch.
Cooking Potatoes
Boiling
Simmering
Baking
Frying
Sautéing
Boiling
Really simmering rather than boiling
Always start in cold water so as to cook the potatoes evenly.
Potatoes are never cooled or "shocked" in cold water like other vegetables, this would make them soggy
Potato Puree
Use starchy potatoes
Wash, peel and remove the eyes from the potatoes
Cut into uniform sizes for even cooking
Simmer (or steam) until tender, but not overcooked.
Drain in a colander, then place on a sheet pan and dry the potatoes in the oven.
Potato Puree (continued)
Pass the potatoes through a food mill or ricer to puree.
Immediately add hot cream or milk and butter.
Season to taste.
Serve immediately or hold the potatoes hot. Cooling and reheating will make the potatoes gummy.
Uses for Potato Puree
Mashed Potatoes
Duchesse Potatoes
Croquettes: shaped, breaded and fried
Marquis: add tomato concassée
Berny: truffles, coated with almonds, fried
Dauphine: add pâte à choux
Lorette: Dauphine + parmesan, fried
Baking
Use regularly-shaped starchy potatoes
Scrub well and pierce with a fork to allow steam to escape while cooking
For crisp skins, rub lightly with oil. For tender skins, leave dry.
Place on a sheet pan and bake at 400 °F for about an hour or until tender.
Hold hot and uncovered for no more than an hour.
Sautéing, Pan-Frying, Deep-Frying
Rissolé
Parisienne
Noisette
Chateau
Hash browns
Potato pancakes
Perfect French Fries
Deep frying starchy potatoes perfectly is a two step process:
Blanch the cut potatoes in oil at 250 °F
Finish frying until crisp and brown at 350-375
Grains
Rice
Wild Rice
Barley
Wheat Products
Cracked wheat
Whole wheat berries
Bulgur
Farro
Spelt
Couscous
Grains (continued)
Corn Products
Polenta
Hominy
Pozole
Grits
Blue corn
Other Specialty Grains
Kasha (buckwheat groats)
Amarinth
Quinoa
Triticale
General Types of Rice
Milled White Rice: all white rice has been milled to remove the outer layer or "bran". Milling removes some vitamins and minerals, but produces the color and texture that we expect in white rice. "Enriched" rice is given a coating of vitamins and minerals to compensate for the loss in milling
Long grain
Medium grain
Short grain
Converted or Parboiled Rice
Long grain rice that has been partially cooked under steam pressure before being milled.
It has a higher vitamin and mineral content.
Grains stay firm, separate, and light, even when held warm on a steam table.
Instant Rice
Grains have been pre-cooked, then dried to facilitate very fast cooking.
Does not hold well, becomes mushy and loses its shape easily
Brown Rice
Has the bran layer still on.
Light brown in color, slightly coarse and crunchy in texture, nutty in flavor.
Higher nutritional value than white rice.
Available in short, medium and long grain.
Specialty Rices
Arborio: short grain Italian rice used for risotto.
Basmati: extra long grain rice from India with a characteristic nutty flavor
Jasmine: a fragrant long grain rice from Southeast Asia. Characteristic of Thai cuisine.
Wehani: an aromatic rice that is red in color and earthy in flavor
Glutinous rice: a sweet-tasting short-grain rice that is very sticky and chewy when cooked.
Cooking Rice: Pilaf Method
Rice is rissoléd in a small amount of fat to coat each grain and keep the grains separate.
Liquid is added, the mixture brought to a simmer, covered tightly, then cooked over very low heat until the rice has absorbed all of the cooking liquid.
Cooking Rice: "Pasta" Method
Drop rice into a large amount of boiling, salted water.
When tender, drain rice in a colander
Place the rice in a hotel pan, cover, and steam dry in the oven for 5-10 minutes.
Alternatively, steam uncovered in a steamer.
Risotto
Sweat minced shallot or onion in olive oil
Add arborio rice and rissolé
Add a little dry white wine, just enough to cover the rice, and stir with a wooden spoon until the liquid is absorbed.
Then begin adding stock small amounts. Continue stirring and adding stock a little at a time, until the mixture is very creamy and the individual rice grains are al dente.
Finish with parmesan cheese and butter. Season to taste.
Pasta
Pasta has two basic ingredients:
Water
Flour or semolina (the milled endosperm of durum wheat)
Egg noodles, of course, contain either whole eggs or egg yolks for flavor and color.
Fresh pasta often contains a small amount of oil.
Pasta Shapes
Pasta Shapes
Pasta Shapes
Pasta Shapes
Pasta Shapes
Pasta Shapes
Cooking Pasta
Drop into plenty of rapidly boiling, salted water
Boil until "al dente"
Strain in a colander
Serve immediately, or cool quickly by immersing in ice water or rinsing in cool, running water.
If pasta is to be stored and re-heated later, toss with a small amount of oil to prevent sticking.
1# dried pasta 3# pounds cooked pasta
1# fresh pasta 2–2 ½ pounds cooked pasta
Polenta
Italian corn-meal mush
Polenta
Italian corn-meal mush
Made by simmering coarsely ground corn meal in water or milk, or a mixture of the two.
Usually finished with the addition of cheese and butter.
Can be served soft, or allowed to harden then cut into shapes and sautéed.
Next Week: Eggs and Breakfast Foods
Homework
Culinary terms beginning with "al dente"
Read chapter 23 in On Cooking
Study for the mid-term
Week 5: Breakfast Cookery
Eggs, Quick Breads, Custards 
Composition of Eggs
Yolk
High in fat and protein
Contains iron and vitamins
White
Albumin (protein)
Two parts: a thick part around the yolk and a thinner part closer to the shell
Shell
Fragile and porous, it allows the egg to absorb odors and flavors and to lose moisture
Air sac
Between the shell and white
Chalazae
Two thin membranes that hold the egg centered
Three Grades of Eggs
AA (left) A(center) B (right)
AA The best grade, has a firm yolk and white that stands up high on a flat surface when broken.
Egg Sizes 
Jumbo (30 oz/dozen)
Extra Large (27 oz/dozen)
Large (24 oz/dozen) (yolk 3/4 oz, white 1 ¼ oz)
Medium (21 oz/dozen)
Small (18 oz/dozen)
Peewee (15 oz/dozen)
Coagulation of Eggs
Whole eggs: 156 ° F
Whites: 140-149 ° F
Yolks: 144-158 ° F
Custards: 175-185 ° F
Sulfur in the egg whites reacts with iron in the yolk to form iron sulfide
This is especially apparent when scrambled eggs are overcooked or hard cooked eggs are cooked at high temperatures for a long time.
Foams
Fat inhibits foaming (don’t allow yolk in the whites if you are whipping them)
Mild acids aid foaming (lemon juice or cream of tartar)
Egg whites foam better at room temperature
Do not over beat
Sugar makes foams more stable.
Quick Breads:
Muffins, pancakes, waffles
Use chemical leaveners
Lightened with egg foams
Avoid developing gluten
Custards:
Quiche
French toast, etc.
Next Week
Meat Composition
Roasting
Read chapter 21 in On Cooking
Culinary terms beginning with "boiled eggs"
Study for quiz
Week 6: Meat Structure and Composition, Roasting
What can we infer about cooking meat from its composition?
Water: 75% (McGee 60%)
Heat makes water evaporate
Protein: 20% (McGee 18%)
Heat makes protein coagulate
Fat: 5% (McGee 22%)
Carries flavor, contributes to tenderness and juiciness
Muscle Fibers
Long, thin muscle fibers bound together in bundles
Texture of these bundles determines the "grain" of the meat
Connective Tissue: A Tough Subject
Physical harness of the muscles: made up of protein structures that surround the living cells that made them
Between individual muscle fibers, between fiber bundles, between whole muscles and between muscles and other kinds of tissue
Three Kinds of Connective Tissue in Meat
Collagen (fr. Greek kolla: "glue")
Elastin (from "elastic")
Reticulin
Why does a chef need to know about connective tissue?
Reticulin is concentrated in spaces between muscle cells (a cook can’t do anything about this one)
Collagen and elastin must be treated properly by a knowledgeable cook to achieve a tender finished product
Collagen Gelatin + Water
Moist heat cooking methods at low temperatures break down collagen
Examples: osso buco, pot roast, brisket, braised beef, stews, etc
Other influences on collagen:
Acid: marinades or acids in the cooking liquid can help tenderize
Enzymes: naturally present in meats, thus the importance of aging
"Meat tenderizers": not recommended since they generally only effect the surface of the meat and can alter the texture adversely
Could we cut away collagen? No, because it is distributed throughout the structure of the meat
Elastin
The very elastic connective tissue that is not altered by the application of heat
Older animals have a higher proportion of elastin than younger ones
The best way to tenderize elastin: Cut it away
Another way to tenderize elastin:
Pounding, "cubing", or "jacquarding"
Examples: cubed steak, "chicken-fried" steak, scallopini
Two more ways to tenderize elastin:
Grinding: hamburger
Slicing very thin across the grain: London broil, fajitas, brisket
Summary: the smart chef’s answer to connective tissue
Collagen
Cook slowly in a moist environment
Elastin
Remove or break up physically
The "tenderness" vs. "flavor" paradox
The meat of an older animal tends to be tougher than that of a younger one
Tougher meat tends to be more flavorful
Tender Meat: far from the "head and hoof"
Round Sirloin Short Loin Rib Chuck
Flank Short Plate Brisket and Shank
Roasting
Cooking food by surrounding with hot, dry air (usually in an oven) generally elevated on a rack or mirepoix
Roasting Procedure
Fabricate the meat for roasting. Tie to create a uniform shape when appropriate.
Season as desired.
Pan or oven sear.
Place meat, fat side up on a rack, in a roasting pan
Place the pan with the meat in the oven at the appropriate temperature
Small cuts at higher temperatures
Large cuts at lower temperatures
Baste with fat (never with water)
Roast to desired doneness, allowing for carry-over cooking (as much as 15% with large cuts of meat)
Remove from the oven and allow the meat to "rest".
If meat is to be sliced, slice as close to the time of service as possible. Slice across the grain.
Degrees of Doneness
Rare (120 °F)
Medium Rare
Medium (140 °F)
Medium Well
Well Done (160 °F)
Larding and Barding
Larding: inserting fat with a larding needle.
Barding: covering the surface of a piece of meat with a thin layer of fat.
What about the roasting pan when I’m finished?
Jus
Jus lié
Pan gravy
Discussion Questions:
What are advantages of roasting at low temperatures?
When might you use high temperatures for roasting?
What is the purpose of basting?
Explain the difference between primals, subprimals and fabricated cuts of meat.
Discussion Questions:
What is connective tissue composed of and where is it found?
What happens to connective tissue under normal cooking temperatures?
What cuts of beef are the best candidates for roasting?
Next Week
Meat Inspection and Grading
Poultry
Sauté and Pan-Fry
Homework:
Read chapters 13 and 14 in On Cooking
Culinary terms beginning with "a point"
Study for quiz
Week 7:
Meat Inspection and Grading,
Poultry,
Sauté and Pan-Fry
Meat Inspection and Grading
There is no relationship between grading and inspection!
Meat inspection is mandatory
Meat grading is a voluntary service which must be paid for by the packing plant
Functions of Mandatory Meat Inspection
Detection and destruction of diseased meat and/or contaminated meat
Assurance of clean and sanitary handling and preparation
Minimization of microbiological contamination of meat
Functions of Mandatory Meat Inspection
Prevention of adulteration by harmful substances, chemicals, or drugs
Prevention of false labeling
Application of inspection insignia
Meat inspectors identify meat as:
Healthy (no disease)
Sound (clean, sanitary)
Wholesome (not adulterated)
Properly labeled (it is what it says it is)
Meat Grading
Grading is a designation of quality or yield, it is optional and must be paid for by the meat packer.
Quality Grading is based on: 
Marbling 
Maturity of the animal
Texture, firmness, and color of the meat 
USDA Meat Grades
Grading and Marbling
Prime
Moderately or slightly abundant marbling
Choice
Moderate, modest or small marbling
Select
Slight marbling
Poultry
Chickens
Broiler or fryer
9-12 weeks old
Roaster
3-5 months old
Capon
Castrated male, less than 8 months old
Hen
Mature female, over 10 months
Cock (or rooster)
Mature male, over 10 months
Poultry
Rock Cornish Game Hen
Special breed of young chicken, 5-6 weeks old
¾ - 2 lb
Poultry
Turkey
4 – 30 lb
Poultry
Pekin Duck
2 – 6 lb
Poultry
Muscovy Duck
Poultry
Geese
6 – 10 lb
Poultry
Guinea
¾ - 2 lb
Poultry
Pigeon
1 – 2 lb
Poultry
Squab
Under 1 lb
Poultry
Quail
Poultry
Pheasant
Ostrich
"Free Range" Chicken
Has no legal restrictions on its meaning or use in marketing
Generally only implies that the birds have had access to the outside
Chicken: White vs. Dark Meat
Most of the color in red meat is due to myoglobin (not blood). Myoglobin is responsible for storing oxygen in muscle tissue.
Consequently, muscles which are used more and need more oxygen are darker in color
Chicken: White vs. Dark Meat
White Meat (breast and wings)
Less fat, less connective tissue, and shorter cooking times
Dark Meat (legs and thighs)
More fat, more connective tissue and longer cooking times
Chicken Grading
Grades A,B, and C
Grading is based on:
Shape of the carcass
Amount of flesh
Amount of fat
Absence of pinfeathers
Condition of the skin
Blemishes and bruises
Fundamental Technique: Sauté
Definition:"to jump" a dry heat cooking method that employs conduction to transfer heat from a very hot (relative to the moisture content of the food to be sauteed) sauté pan to food with the aid of a small amount of fat.
Sauté is an appropriate cooking method for naturally tender pieces of meat or poultry.
Sauté
Preheat the pan
Add a small amount of fat (just enough to coat the bottom of the pan) and allow to heat to the smoke point
Add the dry food to the pan. Do not overcrowd or the food will release liquid and sweat. Dusting with flour is an optional step
Allow the food to caramelize on one side, then turn to the other side.
Adjust the temperature so that the food cooks thoroughly while browning on the outside.
Pan-frying
Definition: a dry heat cooking method which uses conduction and a moderate amount of fat to transfer heat from the pan to food.
Foods to be pan-fried are coated in breading to keep the food moist and prevent it from becoming greasy.
Pan-frying Technique
Use standard breading procedure to prepare the food for frying.
Heat a pan on moderate heat with enough oil to come half way up the product to be fried.
Place the food in the pan in a single layer and adjust the heat so that the food will cook through while browning.
Turn the food and cook until done
Remove the food and drain on clean paper towels to eliminate excess fat.
Next Week:
Frying
Grilling
Broiling
Poaching
Homework:
Terms beginning with "a la minute"
Read chapter 18 in On Cooking
Study for quiz
Week 8:
Deep Frying
Grilling
Broiling
Poaching
Deep Frying = Definition: A dry heat cooking method which uses conduction and convection to cook food by completely submerging it in hot fat.
Deep Frying: "Swimming" Method
Foods are gently dropped in hot oil, fall to the bottom and are allowed to "swim" to the surface.
Foods may be turned once they get to the surface to facilitate browning.
Foods are removed with a skimmer or "spider"
This method is often used with batter coated foods.
Deep Frying: Basket Method
Foods are placed in a basket, lowered into hot oil, then removed by raising the basket when cooked.
Generally used for breaded items, french fries, etc.
Deep Frying: Double Basket Method
Foods are placed in a basket, then held under the surface of the oil with the bottom of a second basket.
Generally used for foods that would float to the surface to quickly to fry properly.
Deep Frying: Recovery Time
The amount of time it takes the oil to return to the proper temperature after cooking an item
Deep Frying: Smoking Point
The temperature at which fats and oils begin to smoke, indicating that they have begun to break down.
The higher a particular fat’s smoking point, the higher temperature at which it is safe to cook with that fat.
Vegetable oil @ 450 ºF
Animal fats @ 375 ºF
Each time the fat is used, it breaks down a little and lowers the smoke point
Enemies of deep fat frying
Salt
Water
Strong lights (leach vitamin A)
Copper, brass, bronze
Too high heat
Small particles of food, batter or breading
Grilling = Cooking by placing foods on a grate above direct radiant heat. The method combines radiant heat with conduction through the metal of the grill itself.
Appropriate for high quality, tender, well-marbled cuts of meat.
Imparts a smoky, slightly charred flavor to foods.
Special woods can be used to impart flavor: mesquite, hickory, apple wood, grapevine, etc.
Of course, the diamond-shaped cross-hatching that results on the surface of the food is characteristic.
Clean and Season the Grill
The grill must be very clean, properly heated and oiled so that food does not stick.
Setting up the Grill
High, medium and low heat
Zones for cooking meats to different temperatures
Appropriate cooking times/temperatures and keeping track of orders in a busy service period.
Marking Meat
Point to 10 o'clock, then to 2 o’clock
Sauces for Grilled Meat
Prepared in advance (no pan to de-glaze)
Examples
Béarnaise
Hollandaise
Compound butters
Salsas
Relishes
Broiling = Exactly the same technique as grilling, except that the heat source is above the food.
For delicate foods or food that are so thin that they are difficult to brown without overcooking, one can use a preheated "sizzler" platter or heavy iron skillet.
Poaching = Poaching is cooking in a flavorful liquid at a very low heat. It is a moist heat method that uses convection to transfer heat from a cooking liquid or cuisson to food.
Poaching liquids
Court Bouillon: French for "short broth" because of the quick cooking time compared to stocks. One way to think of it is as an aromatic stock without the bones.
Fish fumet and white wine
Salted water (court bouillon eau de sel)
Poaching Guidelines
160 ºF to 180 ºF – particularly with delicate fish, higher temperatures can destroy the texture and flavor. There should be no bubbles or motion at the surface of the cuisson.
Start large, whole fish in cold liquid to cook evenly and preserve the appearance.
Start small portion cuts in hot liquid to preserve the flavor and avoid leaching.
Cover the food and cuisson with a buttered parchment paper lid.
Use the cuisson to prepare a sauce.
Next Week
Braising
Stewing
Connective tissue in meat (review)
Beef primals (review)
Homework
Culinary terms beginning with "basket"
Review chapter 10 and read pages 291-293 and 533-536 in On Cooking
Study for quiz
Week 9: Connective Tissue in Meat
Meat Composition
Water: 75%
Heat makes water evaporate
Protein: 20%
Heat makes protein coagulate
Fat: 5% Carries flavor, contributes to tenderness and juiciness
Braising
A combination of dry heat, then moist heat methods
Sear in a pan or the oven (dry)
Simmer in a flavorful liquid (moist)
The term originally referred to a French technique in which a closed pot was completely surrounded by charcoal
Steps for Braising
1. Brown the meat on all sides in a pan (sauté) or in the oven (oven sear).
2. Remove the meat and brown the mirepoix in the same pan.
3. Return the meat to the pan and add the correct amount of cooking liquid.
4. Add appropriate seasonings (sachet, etc.)
Steps for Braising, continued
5. Bring the liquid to a simmer, cover, and simmer until the meat is tender. (either on the stove top or in the oven)
6. Remove the meat from the pan, and hold warm.
7. Make a sauce from the braising liquid.
8. Combine the meat and the sauce.
Alternative Method for Braising
It is also possible to braise in a thickened liquid.
In this case, we would add flour to the fat after the mirepoix is browned to make a roux.
Then we add the stock to make a thickened sauce and braise the meat in this sauce.
When the meat is tender, adjust the sauce and serve.
Collagen Conversion: Roasting vs. Braising
Food scientists report the following degrees of collagen conversion to gelatin in a rump roast cooked various ways:
Roasted well done: 14%
Braised 30 minutes: 11%
Braised 90 minutes: 52%
Stewing = Stewing is the same technique as braising, but usually refers to smaller cuts of meat that are cooked with a larger proportion of braising liquid to the amount of meat being cooked.
Special cases:
Fricassee: a version of braising in which the meat is cooked gently in fat without browning, then thickened with a blond roux.
Blanquette: usually refers to veal blanquette, the veal is simmered without preliminary browning
Daube: a French term for meat braised in red wine
For Next Week:
¨ Review chapter 14 and
read pages 303-310 in
On Cooking
¨ Terms beginning with "blanquette"
¨ Study for quiz
Week 10: Fish and Shellfish
Fruits of the Sea = Fruits de mer 
Round Fish
One eye on each side of its head
Two filets (one on each side)
Many varieties:
Bass
Snapper
Salmon
Trout
Grouper
Mahi mahi
Flat Fish
Both eyes on one side of its head
4 filets (two on each side)
Camouflaged: sea-colored on top, light on bottom
Varieties:
Halibut (up to 100 pounds and above; the largest of the flat fish) "Who left the halibut on the poop deck?"
Turbot (up to 25 pounds)
Flounder (1/2 – 5 pounds)
Sole (1 – 2 pounds: lemon, Dover, yellow, winter, Petrale, grey, etc.)
Oily vs. Dry
Fat content in the flesh of fish varies from about ½% - 20%
Compare the caloric count of the following species:
Caloric Count of Various Fish
Fat Content of Fish
Generally, the more fatty the fish, the more flavorful the fish.
Vitamins and nutrients tend to increase with a fish’s fat content.
Fat Content of Fish (continued)
Fat content generally increases in relation to the depth of a fish’s living environment.
Cooler water fishes tend to have a higher fat content 
because there is more plankton in the food chain.
The darker the flesh, the higher the fat content is likely to be.
Nutritional Considerations
Fish oil contains a high proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids
Low amounts of cholesterol.
Tend to suppress blood cholesterol level in man.
Fishy Anatomical Terms
Nomenclature
The many names for a single fish in different geographical areas can be puzzling, annoying and misleading.
Geographic examples
"Market" names
Muscle Structure of Fish
Unlike muscles of mammals and poultry, fish muscle is arranged in layers of short fibers (myotomes) which are separated by very thin sheets of delicate connective tissue (myocommata)
Fish Muscle vs. Land Animal Muscle
Because fish don’t need the elaborate supporting skeletons that land animals have developed, they can devote a greater proportion of their body weight to muscle tissue (they live in an essentially weightless environment and have little need for strong connective tissue)
The red color of meat comes primarily from an oxygen carrying protein called myoglobin, white meats have much less myoglobin
Fast-Contracting Fibers
Fish muscle is primarily "fast-contracting muscle" that is used for quick bursts of speed rather than long haul endurance like land animals
Fast-contracting muscle fibers are shorter, thinner, and easier to tear apart (for example, by cooking or chewing)
Effects of Cooking Fish
Reasons that fish is cooked briefly
Relatively little collagen to convert to gelatin
Relatively little insulating fat to contribute to juiciness
Fish should be cooked only until the protein becomes opaque (compare to the protein in egg white)
Fish is fully cooked at 140 degrees F
Checking Quality of Fresh Fish
Color of the Gills
Resilience of the Flesh
Odor
Clarity of the eyes 
Scales
Moist exterior
Characteristics of gills in fresh fish
Bright red
Moist, but not slimy
Intact and well defined
Resilience of the flesh in fresh fish
Flesh should be firm, should yield to gentle pressure, but not retain the imprint of your finger.
Flesh should not be soft or mushy
Odor (or what to do about that fishy smell)
Perfectly fresh fish has no unpleasant odor. It should smell like seawater or cucumbers.
"Fishy" smells come from bacterial deterioration of the fish. It is primarily the odor of trimethylamine being released from some of the fat in the fish. Other common smells are ammonia and sulfur.
Eyes
The fish’s eyes should be clear and full
The eyes should not be sunken or cloudy
Scales
The scales should be firmly attached and still moist
Slime
Fresh fish has a natural "slime coat", but should not be "slimy".
Storing Fresh Fish
On ice, preferably flaked ice
In a perforated pan over a solid pan to catch the water
Arranged upright so that liquid does not collect in the cavity
Questions for Discussion:
Why is the difference between a lean and a fat fish important to a chef?
Questions for Discussion:
What is the difference in quality between wild and farm-raised fish?
Questions for Discussion:
Why is fish flesh lighter in color than land animal flesh?
Questions for Discussion:
What are the major tests for freshness in fish?
Questions for Discussion:
What causes a fish to smell fishy?
Questions for Discussion:
Why can’t I store a fish for as long as other meats?
Stronger digestive enzymes
Fish muscle structure is more easily digested
Fish are more prone to psychrophilic bacteria, that is, bacteria that thrive at lower temperatures
Questions for Discussion:
How long and at how high a temperature should fish be cooked?
For Next Week
Read chapter 20 in On Cooking
Study for Final Exam.
Complete your notebook and bring it to class next week.
Terms beginning with "consensus": place in your notebook.
